Naqsh-e Rustam

Naqsh-e Rostam is an ancient archaeological site and necropolis about 13 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars province, Iran. Rock reliefs are cut into the face of the mountain, which contains the final resting place of four Achaemenid kings, notably Darius the Great and his son Xerxes. The site carries carvings made over more than a millennium, from the Elamites and Achaemenids to the Sasanians, and lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sasanian rock reliefs.

The oldest relief dates to the Elamite period but has been almost completely erased. It originally occupied a space 7 by 2.5 meters and was carved over in the Sasanian period to create the relief of Bahram II, leaving only faint traces of the earlier composition. Another severely damaged relief near the investiture scene of Narseh has been tentatively dated to the Elamite period.

The Achaemenid necropolis (c. 550–330 BC) has four large tombs cut high into the cliff face, identical in design. Each has an upper register showing the king holding a bow before a fire altar and a figure emerging from a winged disk, standing on a platform supported by two rows of 15 figures representing provinces of the empire. The middle register depicts a faux-portico of an Achaemenid palace with double-protome bull's head capitals, and the bottom register is left bare. Only the tomb of Darius carries an extensive inscription, parts DNa and DNb, which allows it to be attributed to him; it is assumed to be the oldest and the model for the others. The other three are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486–465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC) and Darius II (c. 423–404 BC), though that matching is somewhat speculative. The tombs were looted extensively following the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.

Ka'ba-ye Zartosht, meaning the Cube of Zoroaster, is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower, a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae. Several theories exist about its purpose.

Well below the tombs, near ground level, are seven over-life sized Sasanian rock reliefs. They include the investiture of Ardashir I, who receives the ring of kingship from Ohrmazd, and the most famous, the triumph of Shapur I over the Roman emperors Valerian and Philip the Arab. It commemorates the Battle of Edessa in AD 260, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor captured as a prisoner of war. Further reliefs of Bahram II include a grandee relief and equestrian scenes, and the placing of the Sasanian carvings suggests an intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.

Elamite rock reliefs

The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to the Elamite period, although it has been almost completely erased. Originally occupying a space 7 by 2.5 meters in area, the relief was carved over in the Sasanian period to create the 'grandee' or 'audience' relief of Bahram II, leaving only faint traces of the pre-existing Elamite composition. One figure from the pre-existing relief, likely a king of the Neo-Elamite period, was integrated into the newer Sasanian composition, appearing on the far right-hand side of the relief alongside later depictions of Sasanian officials. To the left of the preserved figure, beneath the busts of the Sasanian officials, are two partially-preserved figures sitting on thrones of coiled snakes, and on the far left side of the relief is the preserved head of a female figure wearing a mural crown.

Though it is severely damaged, another relief near the investiture scene of Narseh, which depicts a faint image of a man with unusual headgear, has been tentatively dated to the Elamite period.

Achaemenid tombs

Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The four tombs are identical in terms of design and accompanying relief decoration. In the upper register each tomb includes an elaborate relief depicting the king holding a bow and paying homage to a fire altar and a figure emerging from a winged disk, often identified as the Zoroastrian fravahar. The king and the altar stand on an elevated platform supported by two rows of 15 figures, each identified by a short inscription as representing a different province within the empire, with minor differences in their attire to correspond with the national dress of the corresponding region. Two other figures stand next to the base of the platform, and a further six figures stand in niches carved along the edges of the scene (three on either side). The wider middle register depicts a faux-portico of an Achaemenid palace, with double-protome bull's head capitals. The bottom register is left bare.

Tomb of Darius the Great

The tomb of Darius is the only tomb to include an extensive inscription on its facade, where it appears to the left of the king, divided into two main parts referred to as DNa and DNb, allowing it to be confidently attributed to Darius, who refers to himself by name within the text of the inscriptions. It is assumed to be the oldest of the four, and presumably served as the model for the three subsequent Achaemenid tombs cut at the site.

Other tombs

The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486–465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423–404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.

Darius I inscription

An inscription by Darius I, from c.490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign. Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are specifically listed, which formed the largest empire during antiquity. His empire encompassed Macedon and Thrace in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, up to Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley.

Darius I inscription(DNa inscription)

DNf inscription.

There are various and contradictory reports about how this inscription was discovered. According to Mrs. Khadija Totunchi, she took a photo of this inscription in 2017. But she did not find a suitable person to translate and read the inscription. Also, according to Ebrahim Rustaei, in 2018, in cooperation with Abdul Majid Arfai, he presented an article about the inscription to the International Conference on History and Culture of Southern Iran (Historical Persia), in which a reading of the inscription was presented. However, this reading is very basic and has many flaws. But finally, the DNf petroglyph, which had been hidden in the shade and under algae and sediments for 2500 years, was officially and scientifically recorded by Mojtaba Doroodi and Soheil Delshad in February 2019.[2]

Babylonian Transliteration: 1- [mx-x-x(-x) LÚ

pa-id-di-iš-ḫu]-ri-iš ˹a˺-˹na˺ m da-a-ri-i̭a-˹muš˺ LUGAL i-GA-ir-ra-bi

Translation (based on the Babylonian version): [Personal Name, Pati]schorian, invokes blessing upon Darius the King.

Ka'ba-ye Zartosht

Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" (Zendān-e Solaymān).

Several theories exist regarding the purpose of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht structure.

Sasanian reliefs

Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sasanian era.

Investiture relief of Ardashir I, c. 226–242

The founder of the Sassanid Empire is seen being handed the ring of kingship by Ohrmazd.

Triumph of Shapur I, c. 241–272

The most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands Kirtir, the mūbadān mūbad ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran.

In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:

I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.

"Grandee" relief of Bahram II, c. 276–293

On each side of the king, who is depicted with an oversized sword, figures face the king.

Two equestrian reliefs of Bahram II, c. 276–293

The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy. The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal's head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah.

Investiture of Narseh, c. 293–303

In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita.

Equestrian relief of Hormizd II, c 303–309

This relief is below tomb 3 (perhaps that of Artaxerxes I) and depicts Hormizd forcing an enemy (perhaps Papak of Armenia) from his horse.